A Three-Layer Analysis (TLA) of Livy, History of Rome, Book 3
1. Research Question
Why did the soldiers lose their will to fight under the command of the decemvirs?
This question examines why the tyranny of the decemvirate appeared as a decline in the fighting spirit of the Roman army in Livy’s History of Rome from its Foundation, Book 3.
At first glance, military defeat seems to be explained by weak soldiers, poor commanders, strong enemies, or tactical failure.
However, the Roman defeat in section 42 of Livy’s Book 3 cannot be explained only in this way.
There were soldiers.
There were legions.
There were weapons.
There was command authority.
There were external enemies.
Yet the soldiers lost their will to fight.
They did not simply flee from fear. They were so hostile to the decemvirs that they were even willing to lose in order to damage the reputation of the decemvirs.
This was not an ordinary military defeat.
This article analyzes the issue through Three-Layer Analysis and OS Organizational Design Theory.
The conclusion is this.
The soldiers under the command of the decemvirs lost their will to fight not because they lost the ability to fight.
They lost their will because they could no longer recognize the decemvirate as the Roman OS worth defending.
2. Abstract
The soldiers under the command of the decemvirs lost their will to fight not because they lost military ability.
The essence was that they could no longer recognize the decemvirate as the Roman OS worth defending.
The decemvirate was originally a temporary reform body created to write laws. However, the second decemvirate changed its nature.
The right of appeal was suspended.
The tribunes were absent.
The decemvirs remained in power after their term.
Opposition inside the Senate was intimidated.
Justice was connected to the private desire of Appius.
Even in the field, opponents of the decemvirs were removed.
In this condition, the commands of the decemvirs did not look like commands to defend the Roman community.
They looked like commands from rulers who were taking liberty away.
Therefore, the loss of morale in section 42 was not a simple decline in fighting spirit.
In OS Organizational Design Theory, it was the collapse of execution environment trust T.
The soldiers were the execution environment of the state OS.
The legions were the field where the state defense application was executed.
That field could no longer trust the governing OS.
That is why the army could no longer fight.
The conclusion of this article is as follows.
The soldiers under the command of the decemvirs lost their will to fight because command authority was cut off from the liberty-protection circuit and became connected to private desire, rule by fear, and the removal of opponents. Before fighting the external enemy, the soldiers had already lost trust in the OS that commanded them. Therefore, even though military ability remained, the meaning of fighting, consent to command, and the will to defend the community were lost.
3. Research Method
This article uses Three-Layer Analysis.
Three-Layer Analysis divides historical material into three layers.
Layer 1 is Fact.
This layer organizes the events recorded by Livy: the creation of the decemvirate, the hardening of the second decemvirate, the suspension of appeal, the absence of tribunes, the refusal of the decemvirs to leave office, the intimidation of opposition inside the Senate, military recruitment, the decline of the soldiers’ fighting spirit, the removal of corrective actors inside the army, the case of Verginia, and the withdrawal to the Sacred Mount.
Layer 2 is Order.
This layer analyzes the loss of fighting spirit not as a simple military failure, but as a structural failure of the legitimacy of command, the liberty-protection circuit, execution environment trust T, war purpose, and corrective circuits.
Layer 3 is Insight.
This layer draws a general lesson from the loss of fighting spirit under the decemvirs and applies it to modern organizations.
This article also uses OS Organizational Design Theory, R1.34.00.00.
Four concepts are especially important.
The first is execution environment trust T. Soldiers are the execution environment of the state OS. If they cannot trust the governing OS, the military application cannot operate.
The second is legitimacy of command. Command authority is not enough if it exists only in formal terms. Soldiers must receive the command as legitimate and connected to a public purpose.
The third is the liberty-protection circuit. Appeal, tribunes, senatorial monitoring, assemblies, and term limits are control structures that allow public commands to be received as commands of the community.
The fourth is the removal of corrective actors. When opponents and critics are removed, IA, or information architecture, and H, or the human resource and reward system, deteriorate. As a result, field trust T declines further.
4. Layer 1: Fact
In Livy’s Book 3, the decemvirate changes from a legal reform body into a tyrannical power. As a result, the fighting spirit of the Roman army declines.
In sections 32 to 33, power is transferred to the decemvirs. The decemvirate is created as a temporary body to write laws. However, the decisions of the decemvirs are not subject to appeal.
This is the beginning of the suspension of the liberty-protection circuit.
In section 34, the draft of the Ten Tables is published, and citizens’ opinions are reflected. At first, the decemvirate still carries the expectation of legal reform.
In section 35, Appius Claudius works to be reelected by using popularity and election tactics. At this point, the reform body begins to be polluted by the desire to continue power.
In section 36, the second decemvirate displays the fasces with axes and behaves like ten kings. Command authority loses republican limits and moves toward a form similar to kingship.
In section 37, patricians and plebeians begin to think about the restoration of the old institutions after the rule of the decemvirs. This shows that the decemvirate is beginning to lose the trust of the community.
In section 38, the decemvirs do not give up power after their term, and external enemies take advantage of Rome’s confusion. The decemvirate, which should have been a temporary OS, loses its exit condition and weakens Rome’s ability to respond to enemies.
In sections 39 to 41, opposition inside the Senate is intimidated by Appius, and military recruitment becomes an issue. Military commands are issued while the approval and monitoring circuits are blocked.
In section 42, the Roman army under the command of the decemvirs loses fighting spirit and suffers defeat. The soldiers are so hostile to the decemvirs that they are even willing to lose in order to damage the decemvirs’ reputation.
This is a direct signal of declining soldier trust T and distrust of command authority.
In section 43, opponents of the decemvirs are removed even in the field. The corrective circuit inside the army is also destroyed, and distrust deepens.
In sections 44 to 49, the case of Verginia occurs. The collapse of the liberty-protection circuit becomes visible as an individual case.
In sections 50 to 52, the army and the plebeians withdraw to the Sacred Mount. This means that the execution environment stops participating in the governing OS.
In section 53, the plebeians demand the restoration of the tribunes, the right of appeal, and immunity for those who withdrew. Soldiers and plebeians present the conditions for restoring trust.
In section 54, the decemvirs resign and tribunes are elected. The tyrannical OS is stopped, and the representative circuit is restored.
In section 55, appeal, the inviolability of the tribunes, and plebeian resolutions are strengthened. The liberty-protection circuit is reconnected.
In section 59, Duilius restrains further revenge. The restoration of liberty is connected not to revenge, but to institutional recovery.
This sequence shows that the soldiers’ loss of fighting spirit was not an isolated event in section 42.
After section 32, the liberty-protection circuit was suspended. After section 36, the decemvirate moved toward a form similar to kingship. In sections 39 to 41, even the corrective function inside the Senate was blocked. Military command was then exercised under this broken order.
As a result, the decline of fighting spirit in section 42 occurred.
In other words, the defeat in section 42 was both a military failure and an observable indicator of the collapse of trust T in the governing OS.
5. Layer 2: Order
The soldiers under the command of the decemvirs lost their will to fight not because military ability declined, but because the legitimacy of command collapsed.
The fighting spirit of an army is not determined by the existence of orders alone.
It is determined by the legitimacy of command.
The decemvirs formally held supreme power in Rome. They also had the authority to recruit and command an army.
However, the soldiers could no longer receive that authority as legitimate.
The reason was that the decemvirate had become not an OS that protected the Roman community, but a ruling device that violated liberty.
The soldiers were facing external enemies on the battlefield.
But internally, they did not trust the decemvirs.
Formally, they were the Roman army.
Internally, they had withdrawn approval from the governing OS.
Therefore, even when the legions went to the battlefield, they did not fight to win.
5.1 Command Authority Was Cut Off from the Liberty-Protection Circuit
The first structure is that the command authority of the decemvirs was cut off from the liberty-protection circuit.
Normally, command authority in the Roman Republic was not unlimited domination.
There was appeal.
There were tribunes.
There was monitoring by the Senate.
There was approval by assemblies.
There were limits of term and office.
Because of these limits, the command of a public official could be received as the command of the community.
However, under the decemvirate, these limits were broken.
Appeal was impossible.
There were no tribunes.
The decemvirs stayed in power after their term.
Opposition inside the Senate was intimidated.
Justice also followed private desire.
In this condition, command authority was no longer connected to public purpose.
From the soldiers’ viewpoint, it was not the command of Rome.
It was the command of the decemvirs as rulers.
Therefore, even when soldiers received orders, they could no longer feel the meaning of fighting.
5.2 The Decemvirate Came Close to an Adversarial OS
The second structure is that the decemvirate came close to an adversarial OS for the soldiers.
A state OS should normally protect citizens.
It protects citizens’ liberty.
It limits the power of public officials.
It defends the community against external enemies.
It gives citizens a reason to fight.
However, the second decemvirate moved in the opposite direction.
It suspended the right of appeal that protected liberty.
It removed the tribunes who protected the plebeians.
It did not give up power after its term.
It intimidated opponents.
It removed critics even in the field.
At this point, the decemvirate no longer looked like an OS that protected the soldiers’ community.
It looked like an OS that violated their liberty.
In this condition, soldiers turned their anger toward the internal rulers before they fought the external enemy.
This is why a condition appeared in which soldiers were willing to lose in order to damage the reputation of the decemvirs.
5.3 The Purpose of War Changed from Community Defense to the Maintenance of Decemviral Authority
The third structure is that the purpose of war changed from community defense to the maintenance of decemviral authority.
Originally, the purpose of the Roman army was to defend the community.
It defended the city against external enemies.
It protected alliances.
It protected the safety of citizens.
It protected the liberty and order of Rome.
However, under the decemvirate, soldiers could no longer recognize war in this way.
The reason was that the decemvirs, who held command authority, were destroying the liberty of the community.
For the soldiers, the question looked like this.
Are we defending Rome?
Or are we being forced to defend the authority of the decemvirs?
If we defeat the external enemy, will free Rome be protected?
Or will the rule of the decemvirs only become stronger?
When this question appears, the purpose of war becomes unclear.
When the purpose of war becomes unclear, soldiers lose the meaning of accepting danger.
Therefore, fighting spirit declines.
5.4 Corrective Actors Were Removed Even Inside the Army
The fourth structure is that corrective actors were removed even inside the army.
In section 43, opponents of the decemvirs are removed even on the battlefield.
This is important.
An army is not maintained only by a chain of command. The field also needs people who detect danger, correct wrong orders, and maintain the trust of soldiers.
However, the decemvirate treated such corrective actors as threats.
It removed opponents.
It silenced critics.
It blocked the voice of soldiers.
It did not process discontent inside the army.
As a result, the internal corrective circuit of the army was also broken.
In OS Organizational Design Theory, this is the deterioration of IA and H.
When IA, or information architecture, is broken, discontent and danger signals from the field do not reach the upper layer.
When H, or the human resource and reward system, is broken, correct corrective actors are removed, and inappropriate rulers remain.
In this condition, army trust T declines even further.
5.5 Soldiers Saw Fighting as Cooperation with the Decemvirs
The fifth structure is that soldiers began to see fighting as cooperation with the decemvirs.
For soldiers, war is not only military action.
Who are we fighting for?
What are we protecting?
Who receives the benefit of victory?
Will our liberty be protected?
These questions matter.
Under the decemvirate, soldiers likely felt that victory would strengthen the authority of the decemvirs.
If Rome defeated the external enemy, the decemvirs could say that they had defended Rome.
As a result, their staying in power could be justified.
The OS that oppressed the soldiers could become stronger.
If this is the case, victory is not an achievement that protects the soldiers’ liberty.
It becomes an achievement that strengthens the rulers.
When this perception appears, soldiers no longer desire victory.
The fact that soldiers were willing to lose in order to damage the reputation of the decemvirs in section 42 shows this structure.
5.6 Loyalty to the State and Anger toward the Commander Were Divided
The sixth structure is that loyalty to the state and anger toward the commander became divided.
The soldiers did not hate Rome.
Rather, they were angry because Roman liberty had been lost.
This point is important.
The anger of the soldiers did not come from fear of the external enemy. It was not betrayal of the state itself.
It was anger toward the decemvirs who had occupied the Roman OS.
However, on the battlefield, those same decemvirs were the commanders.
Here, the mind of the soldiers was divided.
We want to protect Rome.
But we do not want the decemvirs to win.
The external enemy is an enemy.
But the decemvirs are also close to enemies who take away liberty.
When this division exists, the army cannot become one body.
The soldiers cannot distinguish whether their fighting action serves the Roman community or the decemvirs.
As a result, fighting spirit is lost.
5.7 The Violation of Liberty Destroyed the Execution Environment of the Military Application
The seventh structure is that the violation of liberty destroyed the execution environment of the military application.
In OS Organizational Design Theory, a state or organization can be understood as OS, application, and execution environment.
Military action is an application.
The legions and soldiers are the execution environment.
The governing institutions are the OS.
If the OS is healthy, the military application operates on the execution environment.
However, if the OS presses down on the execution environment, the execution environment refuses to execute the application.
This happened under the decemvirate.
The liberty-protection circuit was suspended.
Soldier trust T declined.
The legitimacy of command was lost.
The purpose of war became distrusted.
Corrective actors inside the army were removed.
As a result, the military application could not operate.
In other words, the soldiers under the command of the decemvirs lost their will to fight not because of a problem in the military application alone.
The connection between the OS and the execution environment was broken.
6. Layer 3: Insight
The essence of the loss of fighting spirit under the decemvirs was not a decline in military power.
It was the collapse of trust T in the governing OS.
The decline of fighting spirit in section 42 was not a decline in military technique.
It was a condition in which the soldiers lost sight of the community that they were supposed to defend with their lives.
In other words, before the soldiers were defeated by the enemy, they had already lost trust in the authority that commanded them.
6.1 Loss of Fighting Spirit Model
The loss of fighting spirit under the command of the decemvirs can be modeled as follows.
Loss of fighting spirit
= suspension of liberty-protection circuit
× decline of legitimacy of command
× distrust of war purpose
× decline of soldier trust T
× removal of corrective actors
× anger toward the decemvirs
× acceptance of defeat
The center of this model is the decline of soldier trust T.
Soldiers are the execution environment of the military application. If execution environment trust T declines, orders may reach the field, but the quality of action declines.
Soldiers go to the battlefield.
But they do not move to win.
They obey commands.
But they do not receive the commands as legitimate.
They are on the battlefield.
But they do not feel that victory benefits the community.
This is the loss of fighting spirit.
6.2 Collapse of Legitimacy of Command Model
The legitimacy of command can be organized as follows.
Legitimacy of command
= public purpose
× institutional limits
× possibility of appeal
× representative circuit
× trust in commander
× soldiers’ sense of community belonging
Under the decemvirate, this model collapsed.
Public purpose was polluted by private desire and the maintenance of power.
Institutional limits were suspended.
The possibility of appeal was lost.
The representative circuit of the tribunes was absent.
Trust in commanders declined.
The soldiers’ sense of community belonging was damaged.
As a result, command authority existed in formal terms, but it lost legitimacy in substance.
Command authority without legitimacy can move the bodies of soldiers, but it cannot move their will.
6.3 Collapse of Execution Environment Trust T Model
The loss of fighting spirit among soldiers can be understood as the collapse of execution environment trust T.
Collapse of execution environment trust T
= distrust of public authority
× violation of liberty
× no possibility of objection
× absence of representation
× removal of corrective actors
× distrust of war purpose
In this condition, soldiers lose the reason to accept the rule of the governing OS.
However, this is not simple disorder.
The soldiers still have a sense of the Roman community. That is why they do not want to fight for the decemvirs, but they can fight again after liberty is restored.
Therefore, the loss of fighting spirit among soldiers is not hostility toward the state itself.
It is the withdrawal of approval from an occupied state OS.
6.4 Military Application Stop Model
The stop of the military application can be modeled as follows.
Military application stop
= distrust of OS
× distrust of command
× decline of execution environment trust T
× removal of field corrective actors
× uncertainty of war purpose
× distrust of the benefit of victory
This model shows that military power is not created only on the battlefield.
Military power is created before the battlefield by trust in the governing OS.
If the OS does not protect the soldiers, the soldiers do not protect the OS.
The Roman army under the decemvirate fell into this condition.
6.5 Acceptance of Defeat Model
The notable point in section 42 is that soldiers were not simply weak.
They were willing to accept defeat.
This can be modeled as follows.
Acceptance of defeat
= anger toward the decemvirs
× perception that victory strengthens the rulers
× perception that defeat damages the rulers’ reputation
× unclear purpose of community defense
× withdrawal of approval from command authority
Normally, soldiers avoid defeat.
However, when victory appears to strengthen the authority of the rulers who oppress them, soldiers lose the will to win.
This is an extremely dangerous condition.
When the state OS is seen by soldiers as “a command authority that we do not want to let win,” the army may exist outwardly, but it does not function as military power.
6.6 Operating Model
The operating model of this case can be organized into five stages.
The first stage is the tyranny of the reform body.
Tyranny of the reform body
= expectation for written law
× concentration of power
× suspension of appeal
× absence of tribunes
× hardening of power after reelection
At this point, a body created to reform institutions changes into a body that destroys institutions.
The second stage is the decline of legitimacy of command.
Decline of legitimacy of command
= remaining in office after the term
× intimidation of the Senate
× no appeal
× suspension of the representative circuit
× distrust of public purpose
At this stage, soldiers can no longer easily receive the commands of the decemvirs as legitimate commands of the Roman community.
The third stage is the decline of army trust T.
Decline of army trust T
= anger toward the decemvirs
× distrust of command
× distrust of war purpose
× doubt about the benefit of victory
× accumulation of field discontent
At this stage, soldiers cannot focus on war against the external enemy.
The fourth stage is the removal of corrective actors inside the army.
Removal of corrective actors inside the army
= removal of critics
× rule by fear
× blockage of field information
× decline of IA
× deterioration of H
As a result, discontent inside the army is not processed, and soldier distrust deepens further.
The fifth stage is the loss of fighting spirit and defeat.
Loss of fighting spirit and defeat
= decline of army trust T
× distrust of command
× acceptance of defeat
× anger toward commanders
× inability to focus on the external enemy
The defeat described in section 42 is the result of this process.
Rome did not lose because it had no soldiers.
It lost because the soldiers had lost the meaning of winning under the decemvirs.
6.7 Causal Chain
The causal chain of this case can be organized as follows.
Expectation for written law
→ creation of the decemvirate
→ suspension of appeal
→ absence of tribunes
→ Appius’ reelection tactics
→ hardening of the second decemvirate
→ behavior like ten kings
→ refusal to leave office after the term
→ intimidation against opposition inside the Senate
→ suspension of monitoring and correction circuits
→ military recruitment for external defense
→ decemvirs command the army
→ soldiers cannot trust command authority
→ soldiers cannot recognize the purpose of war as community defense
→ anger toward the decemvirs grows
→ soldiers become willing to lose in order to damage the decemvirs’ reputation
→ decline of Roman fighting spirit
→ defeats in several places
→ opponents are removed even in the field
→ distrust inside the army deepens
→ case of Verginia
→ withdrawal of the army and plebeians to the Sacred Mount
→ movement toward the collapse of the decemvirate
This causal chain shows that the defeat of the Roman army was not a simple tactical problem.
It was the result of soldiers losing trust in the governing OS.
6.8 Final Insight
The final insight is as follows.
The soldiers under the command of the decemvirs lost their will to fight not because they were weak.
They lost it because the tyranny of the decemvirate cut command authority off from the liberty-protection circuit and connected it not to public purpose, but to the maintenance of power and private desire.
Appeal was suspended.
The tribunes were absent.
The decemvirs stayed in power after their term.
Opposition inside the Senate was intimidated.
Critics were removed even in the field.
In this condition, soldiers could not receive the commands of the decemvirs as commands to defend the Roman community.
Rather, they saw victory as something that would strengthen the authority of the decemvirs and further weaken their own liberty.
Therefore, before they fought the external enemy, soldiers had already lost trust in their commanders and in the purpose of war.
The decline of fighting spirit in section 42 was not a decline of military ability.
It was the collapse of trust T in the governing OS.
When an army no longer believes that the OS is worth defending, it may exist outwardly, but it loses execution power.
7. Implications for the Present
This case is important for understanding why the field stops moving in modern organizations.
In organizations, the following situations often appear.
Employees do not move.
The field does not cooperate.
Projects do not progress.
Subordinates do not make serious effort.
Teams cannot produce results.
Instructions are given, but execution does not happen.
People appear to obey on the surface, but internally they do not agree.
At such moments, upper management often says that the field lacks ability, morale, loyalty, or responsibility.
However, the real question may be different.
Is the command legitimate?
Is the policy connected to public purpose?
Are the freedom and safety of the field protected?
Is there an appeal circuit?
Is there a representative circuit?
Are corrective actors being removed?
If the organization wins, will the field be rewarded?
Or is only the pride of rulers being protected?
If an organization cannot answer these questions, the field may not move even if it has ability.
The Roman army under the command of the decemvirs is a clear example.
There was command authority.
There were legions.
There were external enemies.
Yet the soldiers lost the meaning of fighting.
The reason was that the upper OS no longer looked like a community worth defending.
It looked like a ruling device that took liberty away.
7.1 Strong Orders Do Not Guarantee Execution Power
In modern organizations, people often think that stronger orders will move the field.
However, the strength of an order does not guarantee execution power.
If command authority looks illegitimate, stronger orders may increase distrust.
The order is connected to private desire.
The order looks like an escape from responsibility.
The order ignores the safety of the field.
The order protects only the pride of upper management.
People who object to the order are removed.
In such a condition, the field may obey on the surface, but it does not approve internally.
7.2 Removing Corrective Actors Lowers Field Trust T Further
Under the decemvirate, opponents were removed even inside the army.
This also applies to modern organizations.
People who point out problems in the field are removed.
Critics are silenced.
People who report inconvenient facts are treated badly.
People who hide failure remain.
Only information convenient for the upper layer flows upward.
In this condition, IA, or information architecture, breaks down.
H, or the human resource and reward system, also breaks down.
The organization removes the corrective actors it should keep. It keeps the followers it should not rely on.
As a result, field trust T declines further.
7.3 It Matters Who Receives the Benefit of Victory
Whether the field moves or not also depends on who receives the benefit of victory.
If results return to the whole organization, the field can move.
If results protect the safety and evaluation of the field, the field can make effort.
If results support the continuation of the community, the field can accept danger.
However, if results are used only for the pride of upper management, the field does not move.
The soldiers under the decemvirate saw that victory might strengthen the authority of the decemvirs.
Therefore, they lost the meaning of victory.
In modern organizations, if results do not return to the field and are used only for upper-level evaluation, the field will not become serious.
7.4 Silence in the Field Is Not Consent
The soldiers under the decemvirs did not rebel from the beginning.
They entered the army and went to the battlefield.
However, internally, they did not approve of command authority.
The same is true in modern organizations.
Silence in the field does not mean consent.
People do not object in meetings.
They seem to follow instructions.
There appears to be no problem on the surface.
They continue to work until the deadline.
Even so, trust T may be declining internally.
If this condition continues, the field may stop moving in a crisis.
7.5 Preserved Proposition for Modern Organizations
The preserved proposition for modern organizations is as follows.
Execution power in an army or organization is decided not by the strength of orders, but by the legitimacy of command. When the upper OS destroys the liberty-protection circuit, blocks objection, removes corrective actors, and connects command not to public purpose but to private desire or the maintenance of power, the field loses the will to act even if it has ability. The soldiers under the decemvirs lost trust T in the governing OS before they were defeated by the external enemy.
8. Conclusion
The soldiers under the command of the decemvirs lost their will to fight not because they were weak.
There were soldiers.
There were legions.
There were weapons.
There were external enemies.
There was command authority.
However, the soldiers had lost the meaning of fighting.
The reason was that the tyranny of the decemvirate cut command authority off from the liberty-protection circuit and connected it not to public purpose, but to the maintenance of power and private desire.
Appeal was suspended.
The tribunes were absent.
The decemvirs remained in power after their term.
Opposition inside the Senate was intimidated.
Justice was connected to the private desire of Appius.
Critics were removed even in the field.
In this condition, soldiers could not receive the commands of the decemvirs as commands to defend the Roman community.
Rather, they saw victory as something that would strengthen the authority of the decemvirs and further weaken their own liberty.
Therefore, before fighting the external enemy, the soldiers had already lost trust in their commanders and in the purpose of war.
The decline of fighting spirit in section 42 was not a decline of military ability.
It was the collapse of trust T in the governing OS.
When an army no longer believes that the OS is worth defending, it may exist outwardly, but it loses execution power.
The conclusion of this article can be summarized in one sentence.
The soldiers under the command of the decemvirs lost their will to fight because command authority was cut off from the liberty-protection circuit and connected to private desire, rule by fear, and the removal of opponents. Before they were defeated by external enemies, they had already lost trust T in the governing OS.
9. Sources
Livy, History of Rome from its Foundation, Book 3.
Japanese translation used as base text: Titus Livius, History of Rome from its Foundation 2, translated by Satoshi Iwatani, Kyoto University Press, 2008.
OS Organizational Design Theory, R1.34.00.00.