A Three-Layer Analysis (TLA) of Livy, History of Rome, Book 3
1. Research Question
Why was the strength of the Roman army connected not only to military technique, but also to governing order?
This question examines the decline and recovery of the Roman army’s fighting spirit in Livy’s History of Rome from its Foundation, Book 3.
In general, the strength of an army is often explained by the number of soldiers, weapons, training, tactics, commanders, and logistics.
Of course, these elements are important.
However, Livy’s Book 3 shows a deeper structure.
Even under the decemvirate, Rome had soldiers.
It had weapons.
Legions were formed.
External enemies existed.
Command authority also existed in formal terms.
Yet the Roman army lost its fighting spirit.
On the other hand, when the liberty-protection circuit was restored, when the tribunes returned, when the right of appeal came back, and when command authority was reconnected to public purpose, the Roman army recovered its fighting spirit.
This change cannot be explained only by military technique.
This article analyzes the strength of the Roman army not as military technique alone, but as the total output of the state OS: governing order, legitimacy of command, soldier trust T, the liberty-protection circuit, and the soldiers’ sense of community belonging.
2. Abstract
The strength of the Roman army was connected not only to military technique but also to governing order because the Roman army was not simply a professional army. It operated as the execution environment of the citizen community.
Roman soldiers were not mercenaries separated from the state.
They were citizens.
They were plebeians.
They had families.
They lived under Roman law and public offices.
Therefore, if governing order collapsed, the liberty, rights, honor, families, and safety of the soldiers were also damaged.
Under the decemvirate, the Roman army did not suddenly lose military technique.
There were soldiers.
There were weapons.
Legions were formed.
External enemies existed.
Command authority existed in formal terms.
However, fighting spirit was lost.
The reason was that governing order had collapsed.
The right of appeal was suspended.
The tribunes were absent.
The decemvirs remained in power after their term.
Opposition inside the Senate was intimidated.
Justice was connected to the private desire of Appius.
Even in the field, opponents of the decemvirs were removed.
In this condition, soldiers could not trust the command authority that ruled them.
Therefore, the strength of the Roman army was not created only on the battlefield.
It was supported by governing order, the liberty-protection circuit, the legitimacy of command, soldier trust T, community belonging, and the circuit of honor and recognition.
The conclusion of this article is as follows.
The strength of the Roman army was connected to governing order because the legions were the execution environment of the republican OS, and soldiers participated in the state as free citizens. When governing order collapsed, command authority lost legitimacy, soldier trust T declined, the purpose of war became distrusted, and the military application stopped operating. When the liberty-protection circuit recovered and command authority was reconnected to public purpose, soldiers could again fight for the defense of the community.
3. Research Method
This article uses Three-Layer Analysis.
Three-Layer Analysis divides historical material into three layers.
Layer 1 is Fact.
This layer organizes the events recorded by Livy: the relation between military recruitment and the tribunes, the transfer of power to the decemvirs, the suspension of appeal, the absence of tribunes, the hardening of the second decemvirate, the decemvirs remaining in power after their term, the intimidation of opposition inside the Senate, the decline of the soldiers’ fighting spirit, the case of Verginia, the withdrawal to the Sacred Mount, the resignation of the decemvirs, the restoration of the tribunes, the recovery of appeal, the restraint of revenge, the restart of war, the recovery of morale, victory, and the agreement between the Senate and the tribunes.
Layer 2 is Order.
This layer analyzes military power not only as military technique, but as the total output of legitimacy of command, execution environment trust T, internal order, the validity of war purpose, the honor-recognition circuit, and the health of the governing OS.
Layer 3 is Insight.
This layer draws the insight that the strength of the Roman army depended not on the military application alone, but on the health of the whole state OS.
This article also uses OS Organizational Design Theory, R1.34.00.00.
Four concepts are especially important.
The first is the health of the governing OS. If the state OS is broken, the military application cannot operate well.
The second is execution environment trust T. Soldiers are the execution environment of the military application. If they cannot trust the governing OS, they do not move seriously.
The third is legitimacy of command. Command authority is not enough if it exists only in formal terms. Soldiers must receive the command as legitimate and connected to public purpose.
The fourth is the liberty-protection circuit. Appeal, tribunes, plebeian resolutions, and restraint of revenge form the institutional foundation that allows soldiers to see the state as a community worth defending.
4. Layer 1: Fact
In Livy’s Book 3, the strength of the Roman army is repeatedly shown to be connected not only to military technique, but also to governing order.
In section 30, the tribunes demand an increase in their number as a condition for cooperating with military recruitment, and the Senate accepts it. This shows that military mobilization is connected to governing order and the representative circuit.
In sections 32 to 33, power is transferred to the decemvirs, and appeal no longer reaches their decisions. This means that the institutional foundation of military power begins to collapse through the suspension of the liberty-protection circuit.
In section 36, the second decemvirate becomes oppressive. Command authority loses republican limits and moves toward a form similar to kingship.
In section 38, the decemvirs remain in power after their term, and external enemies take advantage of Rome’s confusion. The deterioration of governing order encourages enemy action.
In sections 39 to 41, Livy describes opposition inside the Senate, intimidation by Appius, and the decision to recruit an army. Military orders are issued while the monitoring circuit is blocked.
In section 42, the Roman army under the command of the decemvirs loses fighting spirit and is defeated. This is the moment when the collapse of governing order appears as a decline in military power.
In section 43, opponents of the decemvirs are removed even in the field. The corrective circuit inside the army is also broken, and soldier trust T declines.
In sections 44 to 49, the case of Verginia occurs. The collapse of the liberty-protection circuit becomes visible as an attack on the body and liberty of a citizen.
In sections 50 to 52, the army and the plebeians withdraw to the Sacred Mount. This means that the execution environment stops participating in the governing OS.
In section 53, the plebeians demand the restoration of the tribunes, the right of appeal, and immunity for those who withdrew. The conditions for reconnecting the liberty-protection circuit are presented as the premise for recovering military power.
In section 54, the decemvirs resign and tribunes are elected. The tyrannical OS is stopped, and the representative circuit is restored.
In section 55, appeal, the inviolability of the tribunes, and plebeian resolutions are strengthened. The liberty-protection circuit is institutionally reconnected.
In section 59, Duilius restrains further revenge. Internal conflict does not become a revenge OS, and military power can return to external defense.
In section 60, war is restarted, and Valerius carefully regains the initiative. After the restoration of liberty, military command is reconnected to public purpose.
In section 61, Valerius tells the soldiers that they are fighting for the free city of Rome as free men. The purpose of war is redefined as the defense of a free community.
In section 62, the soldiers’ morale rises, and they enter decisive battle. This shows the recovery of soldier trust T and fighting spirit.
In section 63, the Roman army wins, and a debate over triumphs occurs. Military achievement is connected to the community’s circuit of honor and recognition.
In section 69, the Senate and the tribunes agree in an emergency and order citizens of military age to gather at once. This is successful military mobilization through internal and external alignment.
In section 70, the Roman army wins through unified command and coordinated attack. Governing order and military technique are joined in victory.
This sequence shows that the strength of the Roman army cannot be explained by military technique alone.
In section 42, legions, weapons, and command authority existed, but fighting spirit was lost because governing order had collapsed.
In sections 60 to 63, after the liberty-protection circuit was restored, the same Roman army recovered its fighting spirit and moved toward victory.
In sections 69 to 70, agreement between the Senate and the tribunes, unified command, and military technique combined to produce victory.
Therefore, the strength of the Roman army was created through the connection between governing order and military technique.
5. Layer 2: Order
The strength of the Roman army depended not on the military application alone, but on the health of the whole state OS.
Military technique means weapons, formations, command, training, tactics, and logistics.
Of course, these were important.
However, in the case of the Roman army, they were not enough.
The reason is that the Roman army was a citizen army. Soldiers were not outside the governing order.
Soldiers were protected by law as citizens.
They were protected by tribunes as plebeians.
They expressed their will as members of assemblies.
They defended the community through military service.
When they won, they were connected to the circuit of honor and memory.
In this structure, military power and governing order cannot be separated.
When governing order is healthy, soldiers receive war as community defense.
When governing order is broken, soldiers receive war as service to rulers.
This difference determines fighting spirit.
Therefore, the strength of the Roman army was not only tactical ability.
It was also the ability of the governing OS to make soldiers feel that the community was worth defending.
5.1 The Same Soldiers Changed Their Fighting Spirit Depending on Trust in the Governing OS
The first structure is that the same Roman soldiers changed their fighting spirit depending on their trust in the governing OS.
The soldiers under the decemvirate did not suddenly become weak.
Their physical ability did not suddenly decline.
They did not forget how to use weapons.
They did not lose tactics.
However, in section 42, the legions under the decemvirs lost their fighting spirit.
This was not a problem of military technique.
The soldiers could no longer trust the OS that commanded them.
After liberty was restored, the same Roman army could fight again.
After section 60, war was restarted.
In section 62, the soldiers’ morale rose, and they entered decisive battle.
In section 63, the Roman army won, and a debate over triumphs occurred.
This change did not happen because soldiers suddenly improved their technique.
What changed was governing order.
The tyranny of the decemvirs was stopped, the tribunes returned, appeal was restored, plebeian resolutions were strengthened, and revenge was restrained.
As a result, soldiers could again feel that the Roman OS was worth defending.
5.2 Military Commands Are Legitimized by Governing Order
The second structure is that military commands are legitimized by governing order.
In an army, command authority is important.
However, the existence of command authority and the legitimacy of command authority are not the same.
The decemvirs had command authority in formal terms.
However, their command authority was cut off from the liberty-protection circuit.
There was no appeal.
There were no tribunes.
They did not leave office after their term.
Senatorial monitoring was blocked.
Justice followed private desire.
From the soldiers’ viewpoint, this kind of command authority was not a command for community defense.
It looked like a command for maintaining the authority of rulers.
After liberty was restored, consular command was reconnected to public purpose.
It defended the community against external enemies.
It defended Rome whose liberty had been restored.
It protected allied trust.
It protected civic order.
When command authority is connected to governing order in this way, soldiers can receive commands as legitimate.
Therefore, the strength of military command is supported by the legitimacy of governing order.
5.3 A Citizen Army Cannot Be Separated from the Liberty-Protection Circuit
The third structure is that the Roman army was a citizen army and could not be separated from the liberty-protection circuit.
Roman soldiers were not just fighters.
They were citizens.
They were plebeians.
They had families.
They needed protection under law.
They were exposed to the power of public officials.
Therefore, if the liberty-protection circuit was broken, the liberty of the soldiers themselves was also at risk.
If there was no appeal, soldiers could not be protected from unjust public decisions.
If there were no tribunes, the voice of plebeian soldiers did not reach institutions.
If justice followed private desire, the families of soldiers could also be in danger.
If plebeian resolutions were weak, the will of the plebeian group to which many soldiers belonged was not connected to the state OS.
In this condition, soldiers could not easily accept the command to “fight for the state.”
The reason is simple.
That state was not protecting them.
A citizen army is strong only when it is connected to a community of free citizens.
Therefore, the strength of the Roman army depended on the liberty-protection circuit and governing order.
5.4 When Internal Order Collapses, Focus on External Enemies Is Lost
The fourth structure is that when internal order collapses, focus on external enemies is lost.
An army is strong when it can focus on the external enemy.
However, when there is internal distrust, the minds of soldiers are divided.
Should we fight the external enemy?
Will this make the decemvirs win?
Is victory for the community?
Or is it for the pride of rulers?
Are we free citizens?
Or are we tools under domination?
When these questions exist, the legion cannot become one body.
The decline of fighting spirit in section 42 is the result of this collapse of internal order.
After liberty was restored, enemy recognition became clear again.
The decemvirate was stopped.
Responsibility returned to procedure.
Revenge was restrained.
Appeal and tribunes returned.
The external enemy could again be recognized as the external enemy.
At this point, the Roman army recovered focus on the external enemy.
Thus, the strength of external war was supported by the reintegration of internal order.
5.5 The Circuit of Honor and Victory Supported Military Power
The fifth structure is that the circuit of honor and victory supported military power.
An army does not fight only to win.
It also matters who receives the victory.
To whom honor belongs.
How the sacrifice of soldiers is remembered by the community.
How the achievement of commanders is approved.
This also affects military power.
Under the decemvirate, victory could strengthen the authority of the decemvirs.
From the soldiers’ viewpoint, even if they won, their liberty might not return. Victory might justify decemviral rule.
After liberty was restored, victory and honor returned to the community.
The debate over triumphs in section 63 shows that military achievement was connected to the community’s evaluation, memory, and honor.
Therefore, military power was supported not only by battlefield action, but also by the recognition circuit after victory.
5.6 When Internal and External Alignment Exists, the Roman Army Becomes Strong
The sixth structure is that the Roman army became strong when internal and external alignment existed.
In section 69, the Senate and the tribunes agree in an emergency and order all citizens of military age to gather at once.
This is important.
The Roman army became strong not simply because an order was given.
It became strong because the Senate, consuls, tribunes, and citizens were aligned at least in the response to external enemies.
At this moment, military command was not an extension of internal conflict.
It became a command for the defense of the whole community.
As a result, in section 70, the Roman army won through unified command, cavalry breakthrough, and coordinated attack.
Here too, military technique and governing order are joined.
The skill of commanders is necessary.
However, if the command is not accepted by the whole community, the army cannot move fully.
The strength of the Roman army was maximized by internal and external alignment.
5.7 Military Power Was the Total Output of the State OS
The seventh structure is that military power was the total output of the state OS.
Military power is not produced only on the battlefield.
It is the total output of several conditions.
The state can recruit soldiers.
Soldiers accept command.
Commanders are trusted.
Command authority is connected to public purpose.
Internal conflict is processed inside institutions.
The army can focus on external enemies.
Victory returns to the community.
Allied trust is not damaged.
Revenge is restrained.
Only when these conditions exist does military technique become real fighting power.
Therefore, the strength of the Roman army was not produced by military technique alone. It appeared through the health of the whole state OS.
6. Layer 3: Insight
The strength of the Roman army was connected to governing order because the Roman army was the execution environment of a free citizen community.
Military technique is important.
However, military technique operates only when the soldiers who execute it trust the governing OS.
Under the decemvirate, legions, weapons, and command authority existed.
However, governing order had collapsed because of the suspension of appeal, the absence of tribunes, the decemvirs remaining in power after their term, the privatization of justice, intimidation of the Senate, and the removal of opponents.
As a result, soldiers could not receive command authority as legitimate. They could not trust the purpose of war. They lost fighting spirit.
After liberty was restored, governing order recovered through the tribunes, appeal, plebeian resolutions, and restraint of revenge. Soldiers again obtained the meaning of defending free Rome.
At that moment, military technique again operated as real fighting power.
6.1 Military Power and Governing Order Model
The strength of the Roman army can be modeled as follows.
Military power
= military technique
× legitimacy of command
× execution environment trust T
× internal order
× validity of war purpose
× honor-recognition circuit
× health of governing OS
The core of this model is that military technique does not operate alone.
Even if military technique exists, fighting power declines when command becomes distrusted, soldier trust T declines, and internal order collapses.
On the other hand, even with the same military technique, fighting power rises when governing order is restored.
6.2 Citizen Army OS Model
The Roman army had the structure of a citizen army.
Citizen army OS
= citizenship
× military duty
× liberty-protection circuit
× sense of community belonging
× public purpose
× honor recognition
× external defense
In this structure, the liberty-protection circuit is essential.
A citizen army is an army in which free citizens defend their community.
If liberty collapses, the premise of the citizen army collapses.
Therefore, the strength of the Roman army was supported by the liberty of citizens and the order of institutions.
6.3 Legitimacy of Command Model
The effectiveness of military command can be organized as follows.
Legitimacy of command
= public purpose
× institutional limits
× possibility of appeal
× representative circuit
× trust in commander
× soldiers’ sense of community belonging
Under the decemvirate, this model collapsed.
Public purpose was mixed with the maintenance of power.
Institutional limits disappeared.
The possibility of appeal was lost.
The representative circuit was suspended.
Trust in commanders declined.
The sense of community belonging was damaged.
After liberty was restored, this model recovered.
Therefore, military commands again had practical effectiveness.
6.4 Execution Environment Trust T Model
Soldiers are the execution environment of the state OS.
Execution environment trust T
= trust in OS judgment
× trust in institutions
× trust in rewards and punishments
× consent to policy
× recognition that rule is valid
If this trust T declines, soldiers do not move seriously even if they receive orders.
They go to the battlefield.
But they do not desire victory.
They hear commands.
But they do not accept danger.
The legion exists.
But it does not operate as fighting power.
The Roman army under the decemvirs was in this condition.
6.5 Internal and External Alignment Model
The condition under which the Roman army becomes strong can be organized as internal and external alignment.
Internal and external alignment
= internal liberty protection
× cooperation among tribunes Senate and consuls
× shared recognition of external enemies
× legitimacy of recruitment
× unified command structure
× recovery of soldier trust T
The movement from section 69 to section 70 can be understood through this model.
The Senate and the tribunes agreed in an emergency, and citizens could be mobilized. Command was also unified, and the Roman army won.
In other words, behind military victory there was political and institutional reintegration.
6.6 Operating Model
The operating model of this case can be organized into six stages.
The first stage is the deterioration of governing order.
Deterioration of governing order
= suspension of appeal
× absence of tribunes
× remaining in office after the term
× blockage of senatorial monitoring
× privatization of justice
At this stage, the foundation of military power begins to collapse.
The second stage is the decline of the legitimacy of command.
Decline of legitimacy of command
= distrust of public purpose
× anger toward the decemvirs
× no appeal
× suspension of representative circuit
× distrust of commanders
At this stage, soldiers can no longer easily receive military commands as commands of the Roman community.
The third stage is the non operation of military technique.
Non operation of military technique
= existence of legions
× existence of weapons
× existence of commands
× decline of soldier trust T
× distrust of war purpose
× acceptance of defeat
The defeat in section 42 belongs to this stage.
The fourth stage is the recovery of the liberty-protection circuit.
Recovery of liberty-protection circuit
= resignation of the decemvirs
× election of tribunes
× recovery of appeal
× inviolability of tribunes
× strengthening of plebeian resolutions
× restraint of revenge
At this stage, soldiers can again trust the Roman OS.
The fifth stage is the reoperation of military power.
Reoperation of military power
= recovery of legitimacy of command
× recovery of soldier trust T
× reintegration of external enemy recognition
× recovery of command judgment
× rise of morale
× victory
The movement from section 60 to section 63 belongs to this stage.
The sixth stage is the maximization of military power through internal and external alignment.
Maximization of military power
= agreement between Senate and tribunes
× citizen mobilization
× unified command
× cavalry breakthrough
× coordinated attack
× victory
At this stage, governing order and military technique are joined.
Tactical ability becomes an outcome only when political integration exists.
6.7 Causal Chain
The causal chain of this case can be organized as follows.
Adjustment between tribunes and Senate
→ institutional conditions for military recruitment
→ demand for written law
→ creation of the decemvirate
→ suspension of appeal
→ absence of tribunes
→ hardening of the second decemvirate
→ remaining in power after the term
→ intimidation against opposition inside the Senate
→ decline of legitimacy of military command
→ decline of soldier trust T
→ decline of fighting spirit under the decemvirs
→ defeat
→ case of Verginia
→ visualization of the collapse of the liberty-protection circuit
→ withdrawal of the army and plebeians to the Sacred Mount
→ resignation of the decemvirs
→ election of tribunes
→ recovery of appeal
→ inviolability of tribunes
→ strengthening of plebeian resolutions
→ restraint of revenge
→ recovery of governing order
→ recovery of legitimacy of command
→ reconnection of war purpose
→ recovery of soldier trust T
→ rise of morale
→ victory
→ connection to the honor-recognition circuit
→ further reintegration of military power through the agreement of Senate tribunes and citizens
→ victory over external enemies
This causal chain shows that the military power of Rome depended not only on tactics and weapons, but also on the health of the governing OS.
6.8 Final Insight
The final insight is as follows.
The strength of the Roman army was connected not only to military technique but also to governing order because the Roman army was the execution environment of a free citizen community.
Military technique is important.
However, military technique operates only when the soldiers who execute it trust the governing OS.
Under the decemvirate, legions, weapons, and command authority existed. But governing order had collapsed through the suspension of appeal, absence of tribunes, remaining in power after the term, privatization of justice, intimidation of the Senate, and removal of opponents.
As a result, soldiers could not receive command authority as legitimate. They could not trust the purpose of war. They lost fighting spirit.
After liberty was restored, governing order recovered through the tribunes, appeal, plebeian resolutions, and restraint of revenge. Soldiers again gained the meaning of defending free Rome.
At that moment, military technique again became real fighting power.
Therefore, the strength of the Roman army was the total output of military technique, governing order, soldier trust T, legitimacy of command, and sense of community belonging.
7. Implications for the Present
This case is also important for thinking about execution power in modern organizations.
In companies, public institutions, and project teams, field execution power is not determined by skill alone.
There is technique.
There are people.
There is a budget.
There are procedures.
There are managers.
Yet the field sometimes does not move.
In such a case, what is broken may not be technique.
It may be governing order.
Is the policy connected to public purpose?
Is command authority legitimate?
Does the voice of the field reach the upper layer?
Can people object?
Are there unfair evaluations or punishments?
Do victories and results return to the field?
Is only the pride of the upper layer being protected?
If an organization cannot answer these questions, execution power declines no matter how much technique it has.
7.1 Technique Alone Does Not Move an Organization
Modern organizations often emphasize technique, skills, tools, and manuals.
Of course, they are necessary.
However, technique alone does not move an organization.
The field that executes technique must trust the upper OS.
If the field feels the following, technique will not operate well.
This command is illegitimate.
This policy protects the upper layer.
This result will not return to the field.
People who point out problems are removed.
Evaluation is unfair.
Failure becomes scapegoating.
In this condition, execution power declines even if technique exists.
7.2 Legitimacy of Command Supports Field Execution Power
In an organization, command authority is necessary.
However, command authority is not enough if it only exists.
The field must receive it as legitimate.
Legitimacy of command is supported by the following structure.
It is connected to public purpose.
It has institutional limits.
Objection is possible.
There is a representative circuit.
There is trust in the commander.
The field has a sense of community belonging.
When these conditions collapse, command looks like domination.
When command looks like domination, the field may obey on the surface, but it does not move seriously.
7.3 When Field Trust T Declines, Ability Does Not Become Action
Field trust T means the degree to which the field trusts the upper OS and accepts its judgment, institutions, rewards, punishments, and policy as valid.
When field trust T is high, the field moves even in crisis.
When field trust T is low, the field does not move even if it has ability.
People attend meetings.
They make reports.
They follow instructions.
But they are not serious.
They do not accept risk.
They do not make improvement proposals.
They are slow to respond to external crises.
This is the same structure as the Roman army under the decemvirs.
There were soldiers.
There were weapons.
There were commands.
However, soldier trust T had declined. Therefore, military technique did not become real fighting power.
7.4 Internal Order Supports External Competitiveness
Internal order is not only an internal issue.
It directly supports external competitiveness.
Distrust grows inside.
Command authority looks illegitimate.
Corrective actors are removed.
The voice of the field does not reach the upper layer.
Evaluation becomes unfair.
Results are used only for the pride of the upper layer.
In this condition, the organization becomes weak against external pressure.
Responses to competitors become slow.
Customer response becomes weak.
Quality problems are left unresolved.
The field avoids crisis response.
Information does not move upward.
In other words, internal order is the foundation of external competitiveness.
Just as the strength of the Roman army was connected to governing order, the strength of modern organizations is connected to internal order.
7.5 Preserved Proposition for Modern Organizations
The preserved proposition for modern organizations is as follows.
The strength of an army or organization is not decided by technique alone. Technique becomes real power only when the field that executes it trusts the upper OS, accepts its commands as legitimate, and feels that results return to the community. The strength of the Roman army was connected not to military technique alone, but to governing order, including the liberty-protection circuit, legitimacy of command, soldier trust T, and sense of community belonging.
8. Conclusion
The strength of the Roman army was connected not only to military technique, but also to governing order because the Roman army was the execution environment of a free citizen community.
Military technique was important.
Weapons, formations, command, training, tactics, and logistics were necessary for an army.
However, military technique operates only when the soldiers who execute it trust the governing OS.
Under the decemvirate, legions, weapons, and command authority existed.
However, appeal was suspended, tribunes were absent, the decemvirs remained in power after their term, justice was privatized, the Senate was intimidated, and opponents were removed.
In this condition, soldiers could not receive command authority as legitimate.
They could not trust the purpose of war.
Victory seemed to strengthen not the community, but the authority of the decemvirs.
Therefore, fighting spirit was lost.
After liberty was restored, governing order recovered.
The tribunes returned.
Appeal was restored.
Plebeian resolutions were strengthened.
Revenge was restrained.
Command authority returned to public purpose.
Soldiers recovered the meaning of defending free Rome.
At this point, military technique again operated as real fighting power.
Furthermore, when the Senate and tribunes agreed in an emergency and citizen mobilization and unified command became possible, the Roman army showed even greater strength.
Therefore, the strength of the Roman army was not military technique alone.
It was the total output produced when military technique and governing order were joined.
The conclusion of this article can be summarized in one sentence.
The strength of the Roman army was connected to governing order because the legions were the execution environment of the republican OS, and soldiers participated in the state as free citizens. When governing order collapsed, command authority lost legitimacy, soldier trust T declined, and military technique stopped operating. When governing order recovered, the same military technique became real fighting power again.
9. Sources
Livy, History of Rome from its Foundation, Book 3.
Japanese translation used as base text: Titus Livius, History of Rome from its Foundation 2, translated by Satoshi Iwatani, Kyoto University Press, 2008.
OS Organizational Design Theory, R1.34.00.00.